Spirulina

Objective: Seaweed and microalgae provide antioxidants, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and bioactive compounds that may enhance exercise performance and accelerate recovery. However, evidence remains inconsistent. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effects of algae-derived supplementation on exercise performance and physiological recovery outcomes in healthy and athletic adults. Methods: This review was registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251166723) and conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines. PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Cochrane Library, EBSCO, and CNKI were systematically searched for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating algae supplementation in exercise contexts. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were defined based on the PICOS framework. Primary outcomes included VO2max, Time to exhaustion (TTE), maximal power output (WRmax), Time-Trial (TT) performance, and creatine kinase (CK). Standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using a random-effects model. Subgroup, sensitivity, and publication bias analyses were performed. Results: Twenty-two RCTs (n = 822) investigating Spirulina, Chlorella, brown-algal polysaccharides, or astaxanthin met inclusion criteria. Algae supplementation showed a suggestive improvement in VO2max (SMD = 0.88, 95% CI: 0.00-1.75) and significantly improved in TTE (SMD = 1.06, 95% CI: 0.16-1.96), with smaller effects on WRmax (SMD = 0.29, 95% CI: 0.03-0.55), and no significant benefit for TT performance (SMD = -0.27, 95% CI: -0.74 to 0.21). Regarding recovery, CK concentrations were significantly reduced (SMD = -0.78, 95% CI: -1.28 to -0.28). Subgroup analysis suggested greater effects for Chlorella supplementation, higher dosages, and aerobic training contexts; reductions in muscle-damage markers were more evident following resistance exercise. Sensitivity analyses supported the robustness of the main findings with minimal evidence of publication bias. Conclusions: Algae-derived supplements-particularly Spirulina and Chlorella-may modestly enhance aerobic exercise performance and attenuate exercise-induced muscle damage under certain conditions. Eff

BACKGROUND: Emerging evidence suggests that Spirulina may reduce inflammation by modulating key cytokines, including C-reactive protein (CRP), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Accordingly, this study conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate the effects of Spirulina supplementation on serum levels of inflammatory mediators in adults aged 18 years and older. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Relevant randomized clinical trials (RCTs) were identified through searches of several databases, including the Cochrane Library, ClinicalTrials.gov, ISI Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed up to August 2025. The pooled effects were calculated using the DerSimonian and Laird random-effects model. Statistical heterogeneity was assessed using I-squared statistics and Cochran's Q test. RESULTS: Eight studies met the inclusion criteria. The administered dosages of Spirulina varied from 1 g/day to 8 g/day, with intervention durations spanning 3 to 16 weeks. The pooled analysis demonstrated that Spirulina supplementation significantly reduced serum CRP concentrations compared with placebo group (weighted mean difference (WMD): -0.09 mg/L; 95% confidence interval (CI): -0.16 to -0.02). In contrast, Spirulina supplementation caused non-significant reduction in TNF-α concentration (WMD: -0.43 pg/mL; 95% CI: -1.44 to 0.59) and IL-6 (WMD: -0.44 pg/mL; 95% CI: -0.98 to 0.1). However, heterogeneity concerning all inflammatory mediators was significant. CONCLUSION: The findings of this study indicated that Spirulina supplementation significantly reduced serum CRP levels, whereas its effects on IL-6 and TNF-α were not statistically significant. Owing to the significant heterogeneity, further high-quality RCTs are needed to confirm these beneficial effects. PROSPERO Registration: The study was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42024606496). © Copyright: © 2026 The Author(s). Published by IMR Press.

There is an increasing number of published studies on the effect of spirulina (an aquatic plant known for its high nutritional value and potential health benefits) intervention on productivity and health of heat-stressed broilers. However, the effect of spirulina intervention on the performance of broilers exposed to heat stress is poorly understood. A better understanding of the productivity of heat-stressed broilers on spirulina intervention will assist in utilizing these data in decision-support systems in the poultry industry. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effectiveness of spirulina intervention in enhancing production physiology and health indices of heat-stressed broilers using a meta-analysis approach. A detailed search performed on PubMed, Embase, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and Web of Science databases on the topic identified 865 publications following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Thirteen peer-reviewed studies comprising 4904 broilers exposed to heat stress conditions were used for meta-analysis. Raw mean differences (RMD) between the heat-stressed broilers with and without spirulina intervention were used to calculate the effect sizes. Heat-stressed broilers on spirulina intervention had their average daily feed intake (ADFI), feed conversion ratio (FCR), and average daily gain (ADG) enhanced by 3.39 g/bird/day (p = 0.002), -0.08 (p = 0.010), and 2.83 g/bird/day (p < 0.001), respectively when compared to those in control group. Restricted subgroup analysis showed that moderators (broiler strains, dose level of spirulina, and production phases) affected ADFI, FCR, and ADG in heat-stressed broilers on spirulina intervention. Dressing percentage (RMD = 1.60%; p < 0.001), and weights of breast, thigh, liver, heart, gizzard, spleen, and thymus were higher, but the abdominal fat weight was lower in response to spirulina intervention. Additionally, spirulina intervention increased the levels of hemoglobin (Hb), red blood cell (RBC), white blood (WBC), total protein, albumin, and globulin, and decreased the levels of uric acid, creatinine, total cholesterol, triglycerides

INTRODUCTION: CVDs are considered the major public health concern and mortality in the world. Common treatments have some side effects and require low-risk treatments, such as herbal medicine. Spirulina is a filamentous microalga that has improved cardiometabolic parameters. METHODS: Systematic searches were conducted in Scopus, ISI Web of Science, and PubMed/Medline databases up to 20 January 2025 to identify RCTs based on the PRISMA checklist and PICOS criteria (People > 18 years, Intervention: spirulina, Comparison: placebo /control, Outcomes: TG, TC, LDL-C, HDL-C, FBG, HbA1c, insulin, HOMA-IR, SBP, DBP, BMI, weight, hs-CRP, IL-6, TNF-α, and Study: RCTs). Meta- analysis was utilized by random-effects models, and the GRADE criteria ensured the certainty of results. RESULT: The results of 35 trials (45 effect sizes) show that spirulina intake improved glucose homeostasis (FBG; WMD: -5.51 (mg/dl); P = 0.001, HOMA-IR; WMD: -0.68; P < 0.001, and insulin; WMD: -0.86 (ng/ml); P = 0.002), decreased dyslipidemia (TG; WMD: -14.75 (mg/dl); P < 0.001, TC: WMD: -11.5 (mg/dl); P < 0.001, LDL-C; WMD: -7.69 (mg/dl); P < 0.001, and HDL-C; WMD: 1.9 (mg/dl); P < 0.001), decreased blood pressure (SBP; WMD: -3.85 mmHg, P = 0.002, and DBP; WMD: -3.09 mmHg, P < 0.001), reduced anthropometric indexes (weight; WMD: -1.78 kg; P = 0.003, and BMI; WMD: -0.58 kg/m²; P = 0.001), and decreased inflammation (TNF-α; WMD: -0.46 pg/ml; P = 0.01, IL-6; WMD: -0.58 pg/ml; P < 0.001, and hs-CRP; WMD: -0.86 mg/L; P = 0.002). Based on GRADE analysis, LDL-C, FBG, and HbA1c had of low quality, while the outcome for weight was of high quality. Furthermore, other parameters had moderate-quality outcomes. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrates that spirulina supplementation effectively reduces the risk of CVD in adults by improving glucose homeostasis, dyslipidemia, blood pressure, anthropometric indexes, and inflammation. So, intake of spirulina is an adjunct or complementary to improve cardiometabolic profiles. TRIAL REGISTRATION: PROSPERO registration cod: (CRD42024626090).

Background/Objectives: Chlorella and Spirulina supplementation may reduce the risk of cardiometabolic diseases by better controlling blood cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, weight, and blood pressure (BP). However, the available studies are limited in size and have used different outcomes. Methods: To gain power in assessing the impact of microalgae supplements on cardiovascular risk factors, we searched PubMed on 3 February 2023 for randomised controlled trials assessing the effects of Chlorella and Spirulina on modifiable cardiovascular risk factors. Results: We found 12 studies in Chlorella and 9 studies on Spirulina. Depending on the available outcomes, varying numbers of participants (Chlorella: 168 to 279; Spirulina: 101 to 299) were included. Our analysis showed that Chlorella supplementation had a neutral effect on BP and lipemia. On the other hand, Spirulina intake led to a significant reduction in diastolic BP (-0.42, 95% CI: -0.81 to -0.02, p = 0.04) but did not significantly affect lipemia indexes, despite a trend toward a reduction in total cholesterol (-0.17, 95% CI: -0.39 to 0.06, p = 0.15). This meta-analysis suggests Spirulina supplementation can be used as an adjuvant to control cardiometabolic risk factors, particularly for BP. However, the magnitude of this effect is small and of uncertain clinical significance. Conclusions: Further randomised trials are needed to better assess the potential of these supplements as adjuvants for the control of cardiovascular risk factors.

Previous studies have yielded controversial results regarding the effect of spirulina on blood pressure (BP), which need updating. So, this updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) carry out a more accurate estimation of the effect of spirulina on BP in adults. This systematic searches (in PubMed/Medline, Scopus, and ISI Web of Science) until April 1, 2024, to identify related RCTs based on PICOS guidelines (population (individuals > 18 years old), the intervention (spirulina), the comparison (control or placebo group), the outcomes (systolic BP (SBP) and diastolic BP (DBP)), the study design (RCTs)), and PRISMA-checklist (Supporting Information, data S2). We evaluated the impact of spirulina on DBP and SBP. Conventional procedures were employed for analyzing publication bias, heterogeneity, and sensitivity. The GRADE criteria and the Cochrane assessment method were employed to evaluate the risk of bias (ROB) and certainty of evidence across the studies, respectively. The result shows spirulina consumption decreases SBP (WMD: -4.41 mmHg, 95% CI: -6.74 to -2.07, I 2 = 66.1%) and DBP (WMD: -2.84 mmHg, 95% CI: -4.65 to -1.03, I 2 = 62.3%). Subgroup analysis demonstrated SBP and DBP were still lower in individuals with ≥ 120 and ≥ 80 mmHg, hypertension (HTN) individuals, overweight individuals, age > 50 years, and > 8 weeks of intervention. Indeed, we do not observe publication bias, ROB, or interference studies in the overall results of BPs, and based on GRADE, our outcomes have moderate quality. Because of the low number of studies and participants, the dose-response and meta-regression are not significant. His study demonstrated spirulina intervention decreased SBP and DBP in HTN and overweight individuals, age > 50 years, and > 8 weeks of intervention. So, spirulina intake decreases BP and could be used in clinical practice. Furthermore, more and high-quality RCTs are needed to establish the clinical efficacy of the spirulina and determine cutoff spirulina interventions based on dose and duration. Trial Registration: PROSPERO: CRD42024534608. © 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

CONTEXT: Inconsistent results have been reported regarding the effects of different types of algae, such as Spirulina and Chlorella, on anthropometric indices. OBJECTIVE: To conduct a meta-analysis to assess the efficacy of algae supplementation on anthropometric indices. DATA SOURCES: A comprehensive systematic search was conducted to find relevant articles published from January 1990 to January 2024. DATA EXTRACTION: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing algae supplementation with a placebo or control group were included. The risk of bias and certainty of the evidence were evaluated using the Cochrane risk-of-bias tool and the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology, respectively. The random-effects model was used to find the Weighted mean differences (WMDs) for each outcome. DATA ANALYSIS: Of 9079 distinct articles in the initial screening, 61 clinical trials were included in this meta-analysis. Algae supplementation resulted in lower body mass index (WMD, -0.27 kg/m2 (95% CI, -0.42 to -0.13); GRADE rating, low), body weight (WMD: -0.78 kg [-1.18 to -0.38]; GRADE rating, low), waist circumference (WMD, -0.68 cm [-1.27 to -0.10]; GRADE rating, very low), kilograms of body fat (WMD, -0.65 kg [-1.13 to -0.17]; GRADE rating, low), and body fat percentage (WMD, -0.9% [-1.62 to -0.17]; GRADE rating, very low) compared with placebo or controls. Nevertheless, the statistically significant effects of algae supplementation on hip circumference (WMD, -0.20 cm [-0.73 to 0.32]; GRADE rating, moderate), waist to hip ratio (WMD, -0.01 [-0.01 to 0.00]; GRADE rating, moderate), and lean body mass (WMD, -0.30 kg [-0.62 to 0.02]; GRADE rating, moderate) were not observed. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the findings of this meta-analysis indicate supplementation with algae may exert beneficial effects on anthropometric indices. However, due to between-studies heterogeneity and very low to low levels of GRADE for significant outcomes, the results should be interpreted with caution. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: PROSPERO registration no. CRD42024522923. © The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Inter

BACKGROUND: Spirulina, a cyanobacterium or blue-green algae that contains phycocyanin, nutritional supplementation has been evaluated in patients living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) due to its antiviral properties. This supplementation may be beneficial in low resource settings when awaiting antiretroviral therapy (ART) for HIV. This review aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of Spirulina supplement in antiviral-naïve HIV- and HCV-infected patients by assessing its immunological effect (Cluster of Differentiation 4 or CD-4 T-cell count) and disease progression (viral load). METHODS: We searched PubMed, Cochrane Library, Scopus, and Web of Science from inception through January 23, 2024. Two authors independently performed the study selection, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment. We pooled data by using a random-effects model and evaluated publication bias by a funnel plot. RESULTS: We identified 5552 articles, 5509 excluded at the title and abstract stage with 44 studies making it to the full text review. Of these 6 studies met the eligibility for inclusion in the final analysis as follows: 4 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and 2 non-RCTs. The pooled results of the Spirulina intervention found significant improvements in biomarkers of clinical outcomes, viral load (VL) and CD4 T-cell (CD4) counts, in participants of the treatment group compared to controls; the VL had an overall Cohen's d effect size decrease of -2.49 (-4.80, -0.18) and CD4 had an overall effect size increase of 4.09 (0.75, 7.43). [Cohen's d benchmark: 0.2 = small effect; 0.5 = medium effect; 0.8 = large effect]. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from this systematic review showed a potential beneficial effect of Spirulina supplementation in HIV- and HCV-infected patients by increasing CD4 counts and decreasing viral load. However, further research in larger controlled clinical trials is needed to fully investigate the effect of this nutritional supplement on clinically relevant outcomes, opportunities for intervention, optimal dose, and cost-benefit of Spirulina supplementation. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

There is no research on the comparative effects of nutraceuticals on weight loss in adults with overweight or obesity. This study aimed at quantifying and ranking the effects of different nutraceuticals on weight loss. We searched PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science to November 2022. We included randomized trials evaluating the comparative effects of two or more nutraceuticals, or compared a nutraceutical against a placebo for weight loss in adults with overweight or obesity. We conducted random-effects network meta-analysis with a Frequentist framework to estimate mean difference [MD] and 95% confidence interval [CI] of the effect of nutraceuticals on weight loss. One hundred and eleven RCTs with 6171 participants that investigated the effects of 18 nutraceuticals on body weight were eligible. In the main analysis incorporating all trials, there was high certainty of evidence for supplementation of spirulina (MD: -1.77 kg, 95% CI: -2.77, -0.78) and moderate certainty of evidence that supplementation of curcumin (MD: -0.82 kg, 95% CI: -1.33, -0.30), psyllium (MD: -3.70 kg, 95% CI: -5.18, -2.22), chitosan (MD: -1.70 kg, 95% CI: -2.62, -0.78), and Nigella sativa (MD: -2.09 kg, 95%CI: -2.92, -1.26) could result in a small improvement in body weight. Supplementations with green tea (MD: -1.25 kg, 95%CI: -1.68, -0.82) and glucomannan (MD: -1.36 kg, 95%CI: -2.17, -0.54) demonstrated small weight loss, also the certainty of evidence was rated low. Based on our findings, supplementations with nutraceuticals can result in a small weight loss in adults with overweight or obesity.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are one of the most important causes of death worldwide. Dyslipidemia is one of the main causal risk factors for CVD that can be controlled by modifying lifestyle, which entails the use of healthy diets containing functional foods. The present study was conducted to summarize the effects of Spirulina on the lipid profile in previous randomized controlled trials. METHODS: MEDLINE, Scopus, Clarivate Analytics Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library databases were searched systematically until January 2023, for clinical interventions that investigated the effect of Spirulina supplementation on plasma lipid profile concentrations. RESULTS: ooled results of 20 studies (with 23 arms and 1076 participants) indicated that Spirulina intervention significantly reduced LDL-C (SMD: -0.6, 95% CI: -0.9, -0.2, P<0.05), TC (SMD: -0.6, 95% CI: -0.9, -0.2, P<0.05) and TG (SMD: -0.6, 95% CI: -0.9, -0.2, P<0.05) levels while HDL-C levels were significantly increased (SMD: 0.3, 95% CI: 0.0, 0.6, P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The findings of the present meta-analysis and review show the usefulness of supplementing with Spirulina in improving serum levels of TC, TG, LDL-C, and HDL-C.

The present research assessed the efficacy of 12-week high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and blue-green algae (Spirulina) consumption on pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors (Dectin-1, IL-1β, and IL-10), along with lipid-associated signaling elements (ApoM and S1P) in obesity. We hypothesized that 12-week intervention combining HIIT and Spirulina consumption will demonstrate superior efficacy than HIIT or Spirulina alone on plasma concentrations of pro- and anti-inflammatory factors and lipid-associated signaling molecules in men with obesity. Sixty-four men with obesity (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m², 20-35 years) were randomly allocated to four treatment groups: control placebo (CP), blue-algae (BA), HIIT + placebo (HIIT+P), or HIIT + blue-algae (HIIT+BA). The treatment consisted of three weekly sessions of HIIT protocols, daily intake of 6 grams of capsulated Spirulina, or simultaneous implementation of both interventions. Plasma biomarkers (Dectin-1, IL-1β, IL-10, ApoM, and S1P), anthropometric measurements, cardiorespiratory assessments, and lipid profiles were examined at baseline and after the 12-week intervention. Statistical analyses demonstrated an elevation in plasma concentrations of IL-10 and ApoM, along with a reduction in concentrations of IL-1β in the BA, HIIT+P, and HIIT+BA groups (P< .05), with the most pronounced changes observed in the HIIT+BA. Also, an increase in S1P concentrations was observed in the HIIT+P and HIIT+BA groups (P = .03, P = .003, respectively). A decrease in Dectin-1 concentrations post-intervention was found only in the HIIT+BA group (P = .03). In conclusion, while HIIT and/or Spirulina have shown potential for targeting lipid- and inflammation-associated markers in obesity, combining these interventions demonstrates superior efficacy for certain parameters.

OBJECTIVES: The impact of combining animal and plant protein sources on digestibility is unclear, despite their increasing clinical use. Using a non-invasive dual stable isotope tracer approach, we assessed the digestibility, bioavailability and utilization of distinct protein blends in older adults, and associated plasma amino acid profiles and muscle protein synthesis (MPS) rates. METHODS: Thirty-two older men (69 ± 3 y) consumed one of four protein blends (A (51:49, casein/soy); B and C (35:25:20:20, whey/casein/soy/pea); D (80:20, casein/whey)) alongside primed constant infusions of [1,2-13C2] leucine for 8 h. Arterialized blood and vastus lateralis muscle biopsies were collected during a trickle feed protocol with all blends providing 20 g total protein, universally labeled 13C-spirulina, and 2H-cell free amino acid mix to determine digestibility. This trial was registered at Clinicaltrials.gov (ID-NCT07038655). RESULTS: No differences (13C:2H ratios) were found in digestibility between the protein blends (p > 0.05). Mean (±SEM) fed state MPS at 2.5 h was 0.078 ± 0.009%/h, 0.075 ± 0.012%/h, 0.085 ± 0.007%/h and 0.065 ± 0.011%/h for drinks A, B, C and D, respectively, with a main time effect observed (p < 0.01), but no significant differences between drinks. Plasma essential amino acids (EAAs) increased significantly from baseline for all blends by 40 min (p < 0.05), with no differences between blends at any time point. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that protein quantity (and/or leucine content), rather than composition, appears to be the most important factor driving MPS. Future work should focus on clinical populations where protein requirements and digestibility characteristics may differ.

BACKGROUND: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic neuroinflammatory disorder marked by demyelination and axonal damage, where oxidative stress and cytokine-mediated inflammation are key pathological factors. Spirulina, a microalga rich in phycocyanin, phenolic compounds, and omega-3 fatty acids, exhibits potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, potentially targeting these pathways. This study investigated spirulina's impact on inflammatory biomarkers and quality of life in relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) patients. METHODS: A triple-blind, placebo-controlled trial randomized 80 RRMS patients (EDSS 0-6) to receive 1 g/day spirulina (n = 40) or placebo (n = 40) for 12 weeks. Sixteen participants (20%) withdrew. Primary analysis followed the intention-to-treat (ITT) principle (N = 80) using baseline-observation-carried-forward for missing data. Serum IL-1β and IL-6 (primary outcomes) were measured by ELISA. Quality of life (MSQoL-54) and anthropometric measures were secondary outcomes. RESULTS: A linear mixed-effects model revealed that spirulina supplementation significantly reduced serum IL-1β (Estimate = - 1.07 ± 0.14, p < 0.001) and IL-6 levels (Estimate = - 2.66 ± 0.26, p < 0.001) compared to placebo. Significant improvements were also observed in health perception (Estimate = - 0.49 ± 0.12, p < 0.001), physical function (-0.37 ± 0.11, p < 0.001), role limitation-physical (-0.36 ± 0.16, p = 0.030), energy (-0.64 ± 0.15, p < 0.001), and sexual function (-1.31 ± 0.29, p < 0.001). No significant effects were found for emotional wellbeing, health distress, social function, cognitive function, sexual satisfaction, overall quality of life, or total mental health. Anthropometric analysis showed a significant weight reduction in the spirulina group versus placebo (-2.85 ± 1.13 kg, p = 0.015), while BMI reduction was borderline significant (-0.78 ± 0.41, p = 0.060). No significant changes were observed in waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio, energy intake, or physical activity. CONCLUSION: Spirulina supplementation significantly reduced pro-inflammatory markers and improved multiple physical and cognitive quality of life domains in patients with RRMS. Spiru

Spirulina platensis, a blue-green alga rich in nutritional value and the beneficial pigment phycocyanin, is a source of bioactive peptides with antioxidant properties. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of bioactive peptides extracted from spirulina on wound healing and inflammation after periodontal surgery. In this double-blind, split-mouth randomized controlled trial study, twenty patients with periodontitis were assigned to either an experimental group (receiving spirulina peptide gel) or a control group (receiving placebo). Before surgery, all patients underwent scaling and root planning to eliminate pre-existing plaque. The surgical procedure involved a modified Widman flap technique. Wound healing was assessed at 1, 4, and 8 weeks post-surgery using parameters including soft tissue swelling, gingival color, probing depth, bleeding index, and plaque index. followed by a saline wash. Statistical analysis using SPSS 20 software employing non-parametric tests (Wilcoxon and Kruskal-Wallis) were carried out. The spirulina group showed a significant reduction in plaque and bleeding indices at weeks 4 and 8, as well as less gingival redness and lower pain scores at week 1, compared to controls. In addition, the need for pain medication was significantly lower in the spirulina group. These findings indicate that spirulina bioactive peptide gel can significantly improve wound healing, reduce inflammation, and alleviate post-surgical pain in periodontal procedures. These findings suggest its potential as a valuable adjunct therapy in periodontal surgery, enhancing patient recovery and improving overall periodontal health. However considering the limitation of the study, further studies are warranted to confirm and generalize the results. © 2025. The Author(s).

Nutritional strategies are critical for optimizing soccer players' performance and body composition. Spirulina, a protein-rich plant-based supplement, and probiotics offer individual benefits. However, their combined effects remain underexplored. This study investigated the effects of co-supplementation with spirulina and probiotics on body composition, isokinetic, isometric strength, and performance metrics in male soccer players. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, forty soccer players were randomly assigned to four groups: placebo (PLA), probiotics (PRO), spirulina (SPI), and combined probiotics-spirulina (PRO + SPI). The PRO group received two probiotic capsules (a total dose of 4.5 × 1011 CFU) daily, with breakfast and dinner. The SPI group consumed two 1-g spirulina tablets twice daily (2 g total), with breakfast and dinner. The PRO + SPI group received both supplements in the same dosing regimen, while the PLA group consumed starch-based placebo capsules. Over eight weeks, participants followed identical training regimens. Pre- and post-intervention assessments included body composition (weight, BMI, fat percentage, fat weight, muscle weight), performance metrics (vertical jump, agility, speed, anaerobic sprint tests), and isokinetic and isometric knee strength tests. Statistical analyses utilized repeated measures and Bonferroni post-hoc tests. The PRO + SPI group demonstrated more significant reductions in weight (P = 0.012) and fat weight (P = 0.001) compared to the PLA group, while the SPI group showed a significant reduction in fat percentage (P = 0.034). Agility scores improved significantly in the PRO + SPI group compared to the PLA (P = 0.001) and SPI (P = 0.004) groups. Isokinetic performance metrics, including average power during knee extension at 60°/s and 180°/s, improved significantly in the PRO + SPI group compared to the PLA group (P = 0.018 and P = 0.009, respectively). Similarly, the PRO and SPI groups outperformed the PLA group in isokinetic measures such as absolute peak torque at 60°/s (P = 0.032) and 180°/s (P = 0.006). Also, maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) improved significantly in the PRO and SPI groups comp

BACKGROUND: Existing literature indicates that spirulina supplementation can improve a variety of blood morphological parameters (such as hemoglobin) in healthy and clinical populations. Given the importance of hemoglobin for endurance exercise, particularly at altitude, this study aimed to investigate whether spirulina supplementation can improve blood morphological parameters in healthy cyclists and positively influence physiological variables when completing a lactate threshold test at simulated moderate altitude (2,500 m). METHODS: Twenty (18 male; 2 female) healthy participants (Mean ± SD; Age 37 ± 9 years, Stature 181 ± 6 cm, Mass 81 ± 9 kg, V˙O2max 51.8 ± 7.8 ml·kg-1·min-1) ingested 6 g/day of spirulina or placebo for 3-weeks in a double-blinded randomized counter-balanced cross-over design, then completed a lactate threshold test at simulated moderate altitude, with a 14-day washout period between trials. RESULTS: Following spirulina supplementation, heart rate at the lactate threshold was significantly lower in comparison to placebo supplementation (spirulina = 152 ± 11 b.min -1 vs. placebo = 155 ± 12 b.min -1, p < 0.05). No other physiological variables (Watts, RER, RPE, VO2) were significantly different (p > 0.05) at the calculated threshold, or during the first four lower stages. Red Cell Distribution Width significantly increased following spirulina supplementation in comparison to placebo (spirulina = 13.3 ± 0.9 % vs. placebo = 12.5 ± 0.7 %, p < 0.05). Plateletcrit significantly decreased following spirulina supplementation (spirulina = 0.288 ± 0.032 vs. placebo = 0.293 ± 0.050, p < 0.05). No other blood morphological parameters changed (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION: In conclusion, three weeks of spirulina supplementation at 6 g/day reduced heart rate during a lactate threshold test at a simulated moderate altitude (2,500 m), but did not produce additional physiological or hematological benefits.

Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of eight weeks of aerobic exercise and spirulina supplementation on liver enzymes, body composition, and cardiorespiratory fitness in overweight and obese women. Methods: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was conducted involving 36 overweight and obese adult women (body mass index [BMI] ≥ 25 kg/m2, aged 25-40 years) randomly assigned to four groups: placebo with aerobic exercise, spirulina with aerobic exercise, spirulina-only, and placebo-only. Interventions included aerobic training three times per week (40-50 minutes/session) and a twice-daily dose (each 500 mg) of Spirulina or placebo for eight weeks. Outcomes were assessed at baseline and post-intervention, including liver enzyme levels (alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP), body composition (BMI, body fat percentage, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR)), and VO2max using validated protocols. Results: Significant within-group improvements in ALT, AST, body weight, BMI, WHR, and VO2max were observed in the aerobic training and spirulina groups, either alone or combined (p < .001). The aerobic training + placebo group demonstrated the greatest reduction in body weight and BMI, while spirulina-alone showed significant ALT and AST reductions. VO2max improved in all intervention groups, but post hoc analysis revealed no significant between-group differences. Conclusion: Aerobic exercise and spirulina supplementation independently and synergistically improve liver function, body composition, and cardiorespiratory fitness in overweight and obese women. Combining these interventions may offer a holistic approach to managing obesity-related health risks. Further research is essential to elucidate the underlying mechanisms and optimize intervention strategies for diverse populations.

Obesity is a significant public health issue associated with an elevated risk of chronic diseases. Discovering appropriate exercise interventions combined with beneficial herbal supplements has always been investigated. Hence, our study aimed to assess the impact of 12 weeks of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and spirulina supplementation on the apolipoproteins, insulin resistance, and body composition of men with obesity. Forty-four men with obesity (height: 168.42 ± 2.63 cm, body mass: 93.24 ± 2.23 kg; BMI: 32.89 ± 1.23 kg/m2; age: 25-40 years) were divided into four groups: control group (CG, n = 11), spirulina group (SG, n = 11), high-intensity interval training group (HIITG, n = 11), and SG + HIIT group (n = 11). The intervention involved the daily administration of either spirulina or a placebo and HIIT three times a week for the training groups. Anthropometric indices, HOMA-IR, insulin, and apolipoproteins (Apo-A, Apo-B, and Apo-J) were measured before and after the 12-week intervention. Post-intervention analysis indicated differences between the CG and the three interventional groups for percent body fat (%BF), insulin, HOMA-IR, and apolipoproteins levels (p < 0.05). Spirulina supplementation with HIIT increased Apo-A while causing decreases in Apo-B and Apo-J levels and improved body composition (weight, %fat), BMI, and HOMA-IR (p < 0.05). It can be concluded that the combined intervention of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and spirulina supplementation has a significant impact on mitigating obesity, managing weight, and reducing the risk of cardiovascular diseases. © 2025 The Author(s). European Journal of Sport Science published by Wiley‐VCH GmbH on behalf of European College of Sport Science.

Background/Objectives: Vascular aging is associated with increased arterial stiffness and changes in the wall structure, leading to a loss of elasticity. Silicon is abundant in arteries and plays a key role in the synthesis and stabilization of elastin fibers. In animal models of accelerated cardiovascular aging, a specific nutritional supplement based on silicon-enriched spirulina (SpSi) has been shown to have beneficial effects on vascular function. The present study, designed as a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of this SpSi supplement on aging-related changes in vascular function among healthy older adults. Methods: Here, 120 healthy volunteers aged 60-75 years were enrolled and randomly assigned to either the SpSi group (n = 60) or placebo group (n = 60). Over 6 months, the participants received either 3.5 g of specific 1% silicon-enriched spirulina (SpSi group) or placebo tablets daily. The primary outcome was the assessment of arterial wall pressure waveforms, which included blood pressure (BP) readings and the determination of the aortic pulse wave velocity (aPWV). Secondary outcomes included the vasomotor endothelial function through post-ischemic vasorelaxation, measured using the reactive hyperemia index (RHI), and carotid intima-media thickness. Results: When considering the entire sample, none of the studied parameters differed between the placebo and SpSi groups. However, when focusing on individuals with high-normal blood pressure (i.e., systolic BP between 130 and 150 mmHg) and aPWV levels above cutoff values (>10 m/s), the BP decreased by 8% (p < 0.001) and aPWV decreased by 13.5% (p < 0.0001) in subjects receiving SpSi. In individuals with BP and aPWV levels below the cutoff values, no effect was observed. Conclusions: In healthy elderly individuals, SpSi supplementation improved high-normal blood pressure and aortic pulse wave velocity, suggesting an enhanced vascular function.

BACKGROUND: Periodontal diseases necessitate adjunctive therapies alongside mechanical debridement. Spirulina platensis, recognized for its antimicrobial properties and minimal side effects, offers promise in periodontal treatment. AIMS: This study compares the efficacy of subgingivally delivered spirulina gel with chlorhexidine (CHX) gel both clinically and microbiologically in stage III periodontitis patients. METHODS AND MATERIALS: A randomized, controlled, single-blinded, split-mouth study was conducted with 23 subjects meeting inclusion and exclusion criteria. The participants were randomly assigned to two treatment groups: Group I (control) received scaling and root planing (SRP) followed by 1% CHX gel, and Group II (test) received SRP followed by 4% spirulina gel. Clinical parameters such as Gingival Index (GI), Modified Sulcular Bleeding Index (mSBI), and probing depth were assessed at baseline, 3 rd week, and 6 th week. Microbial load assessment for Porphyromonas gingivalis (P.g) was conducted using real-time qPCR at baseline and 6 th week. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED: Paired t-tests, repeated measures analyses of variance using SPSS software. RESULTS: Both groups exhibited significant improvements in clinical parameters and reduced P.g load, with no significant difference between the spirulina and CHX groups. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that 4% spirulina gel, when delivered subgingivally can be considered a viable adjunct to non-surgical periodontal therapy, offering a natural and potentially cost-effective alternative to traditional antimicrobial agents.

BACKGROUND: Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) remains a major clinical challenge with high mortality and limited treatment responsiveness. Epigenetic therapy with 5-azacitidine (5-aza), a DNA methyltransferase inhibitor, and photodynamic therapy (PDT) using natural photosensitizers have independently shown promise in enhancing cancer cell death. OBJECTIVE: This study investigates the synergistic effect of combining 5-aza and Spirulina-based PDT on OSCC cells. METHODS: Human OSCC (CAL27) and normal gingival fibroblast (HGF) cells were treated with 5-aza, Spirulina extract-based PDT, or their combination. Cytotoxicity was evaluated by MTT assay; migration by wound healing; invasion by MMP2/9 gene expression; apoptosis by flow cytometry; and DNA fragmentation by comet assay. RESULTS: The combination therapy significantly reduced CAL27 cell viability while sparing normal HGF cells. Cell migration and invasion were markedly suppressed, with downregulation of MMP2 and MMP9. Apoptosis rates and DNA damage were significantly higher in the combined treatment group than in either monotherapy. CONCLUSION: Spirulina-based PDT enhances the antitumor efficacy of 5-aza in OSCC by inducing synergistic cytotoxic, apoptotic, and anti-invasive effects. These findings support the therapeutic potential of combining epigenetic and oxidative stress-based modalities in OSCC management.

Commercial formulations of 29 commonly used herbal supplements (HSs) and grapefruit juice were evaluated for drug interaction potential via quantification of their CYP3A inhibitory potential in two in vitro experimental models of human small intestine, cryopreserved human intestinal mucosa (CHIM), and cryopreserved human enterocytes (CHEs). Two CYP3A substrates were used-in the studies with CHIM, CYP3A activity was quantified via liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry quantification of midazolam 1'-hydroxylation, whereas in CHE, luciferin-IPA metabolism to luciferin was quantified by luminescence. Upon treatment of CHIM with the estimated lumen concentration of the HS upon each oral administration (manufacturers' recommended dosage dissolved in 200 ml of culture medium), >80% CYP3A inhibition was observed for green tea extract, St. John's wort, valerian root, horehound, and grapefruit juice. Less than 50% inhibition was observed for fenugreek, aloe vera, guarana, soy isoflavone, maca, echinacea, spirulina, evening primrose, milk thistle, cranberry, red yeast rice, rhodiola, ginkgo biloba, turmeric, curcumin, white kidney bean, garlic, cinnamon, saw palmetto berries, panax ginseng, black elderberry, wheat grass juice, flaxseed oil, black cohosh, and ginger root. The results were confirmed in a a dose-response study with HSs obtained from three suppliers for the four inhibitory HSs (green tea extract, horehound, St. John's wort, valerian root) and three representative noninhibitory HSs (black cohosh, black elderberry, echinacea). Similar results were obtained with the inhibitory HSs in CHE. The results illustrate that CHIM and CHE represent physiologically relevant in vitro experimental models for the evaluation of drug interaction potential of herbal supplements. Based on the results, green tea extract, horehound, St. John's wort, and valerian root may cause drug interactions with orally administered drugs that are CYP3A substrates, as was observed for grapefruit juice. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: In vitro evaluation of 29 popular herbal supplements in cryopreserved human intestinal mucosa identified green tea extract, horehound, St. John's wort, and valerian

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of dietary silicon-enriched spirulina (SES) on atherosclerosis. METHODS: Hamsters (six per group) on a high-fat (HF) diet received SES or non-enriched spirulina (both at 57 mg/kg body weight) daily. This corresponded to 0.57 mg silicon/kg body weight daily. RESULTS: The HF diet induced dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and vascular dysfunction. Compared with the HF group, SES attenuated increases of lipemia and prevented insulin resistance (IR) (P = 0.001). SES protected against oxidative stress through a reduction of heart (P = 0.006) and liver (P < 0.0001) nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase activity and by sparing the activity of superoxide dismutase (P = 0.0017) and glutathione peroxidase (P = 0.01861). SES decreased inflammation, lowering tumor necrosis factor-α (P = 0.0006) and interleukin-6 levels (P = 0.0112), decreasing polymorphonuclear cells and preventing nuclear factor-κB activity (P = 0.0259). SES corrected plasma level of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (P = 0.0380), which was increased by the HF diet. Finally, SES supplementation prevented vascular and endothelial functions assessed respectively by the contractile response to the agonist phenylephrine and the relaxation induced by acetylcholine. CONCLUSION: SES protects against metabolic imbalance, inflammation, oxidative stress, and vascular dysfunction induced by an HF diet, and could prevent the atherogenic processes. Synergistic effects between spirulina and silicon were observed.

Spirulina platensis (SP) has been considered as potential food source of 21st century due to its remarkable nutrient profile and therapeutic benefits. However, the cytochrome P450 (CYP)-mediated drug/chemical interaction potential of SP has not yet been pursued. We investigated the effects of SP on the expressions and enzymatic activities of main CYP isozymes. After the rats were orally administered with SP daily for 5 consecutive weeks, there were significant downregulations in hepatic expression levels and inhibition in enzymatic activities of CYP1A2 and CYP2E1 compared to controls. In addition, a significant decrease was observed in CYP2C6-associated enzyme activity with no remarkable changes in messenger RNA (mRNA)/protein levels. The SP application resulted in significant increases in mRNA/protein levels of both CYP2B1 and CYP3A1 without a significant change in enzyme activities. These findings partly explain the chemopreventive properties of SP toward various organ toxicities, mutagenesis, and carcinogenesis; however, its coadministration with some CYP substrates may lead to undesirable drug interactions.

A simple and solution-phase method for functionalization of selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) with Spirulina polysaccharides (SPS) has been developed in the present study. The cellular uptake and anticancer activity of SPS-SeNPs were also evaluated. Monodisperse and homogeneous spherical SPS-SeNPs with diameters ranging from 20 nm to 50 nm were achieved under optimized conditions, which were stable in the solution phase for at least 3 months. SPS surface decoration significantly enhanced the cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of SeNPs toward several human cancer cell lines. A375 human melanoma cells were found extremely susceptible to SPS-SeNPs with half maximal (50%) inhibitory concentration value of 7.94 μM. Investigation of the underlying mechanisms revealed that SPS-SeNPs inhibited cancer cell growth through induction of apoptosis, as evidenced by an increase in sub-G(1) cell population, deoxyribonucleic acid fragmentation, chromatin condensation, and phosphatidylserine translocation. Results suggest that the strategy to use SPS as a surface decorator could be an effective way to enhance the cellular uptake and anticancer efficacy of nanomaterials. SPS-SeNPs may be a potential candidate for further evaluation as a chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agent against human cancers.

The Dietary Supplements Information Expert Committee (DSI-EC) of the United States Pharmacopeial Convention (USP) reviews the safety of dietary supplements and dietary supplement ingredients for the purpose of determining whether they should be admitted as quality monographs into the United States Pharmacopeia and National Formulary (USP-NF). The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has enforcement authority to pursue a misbranding action in those instances where a dietary supplement product indicates that it conforms to USP standards but fails to so conform. Recently DSI-EC undertook a safety evaluation of spirulina, a widely used dietary ingredient. DSI-EC reviewed information from human clinical trials, animal studies, and regulatory and pharmacopeial sources and analyzed 31 adverse event reports regarding spirulina to assess potential health concerns. At the conclusion of this review, DSI-EC assigned a Class A safety rating for Spirulina maxima and S. platensis, thereby permitting the admission of quality monographs for these dietary supplement ingredients in USP-NF. DSI-EC continually monitors reports concerning the safety of dietary supplements and dietary supplement ingredients for which USP dietary supplement monographs are developed. The DSI-EC may revisit the safety classification of spirulina as new information on this dietary ingredient becomes available.

The effects of C-Phycocyanin (C-PC), a biliprotein from Spirulina platensis on the regulation of multidrug resistance-1 (MDR1), a poly glycoprotein in human hepatocarcinoma cell line, HepG2 were reported. The results revealed that a significant down regulation of MDR1 expression in C-PC treated HepG2 cells was through reactive oxygen species and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) mediated pathways. C-PC in a concentration dependent manner increased the accumulation of doxorubicin in HepG2 cells and enhanced sensitivity of the cells to doxorubicin by 5 folds. The induction of MDR1 expression by PGE₂ and its down regulation by C-PC and DPI (Diphenylene iodonium, NADPH oxidase inhibitor) or by COX-2 knockdown suggest that the enhanced sensitivity of HepG2 cells to doxorubicin by C-PC is mediated by the down regulation of MDR1 expression. Further studies reveal the involvement of NF-κB and AP-1 in the C-PC induced down regulation of MDR1. Also the inactivation of the signal transduction pathways involving Akt, ERK, JNK and p38 by C-PC was observed. The present study thus demonstrates the efficacy of C-PC in overcoming the MDR1 mediated drug resistance in HepG2 cells by the down regulation of reactive oxygen species and COX-2 pathways via the involvement of NF-κB and AP-1.

Oral administration of hot-water extract of Spirulina, cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis, leads to augmentation of NK cytotoxicity in humans. Here, we applied to syngeneic tumor-implant mice (C57BL/6 versus B16 melanoma) Spirulina to elucidate the mechanism of raising antitumor NK activation. A B16D8 subcell line barely expressed MHC class I but about 50% expressed Rae-1, a ligand for NK activation receptor NKG2D. The Rae-1-positive population of implant B16 melanoma was effectively eliminated in the tumor mass progressed in mice. This antitumor activity was induced in parallel with IFN-gamma and abolished in mice by treatment with asialoGM-1 but not CD8beta Ab, suggesting the effector is NK cell. NK cell activation occurred in the spleen of wild-type mice medicated with Spirulina. This Spirulina-mediated enhanced NK activation was abrogated in MyD88 -/- mice but not in TICAM-1 -/- mice. The NK activating properties of Spirulina depending on MyD88 were confirmed with in vitro bone marrow-derived dendritic cells expressing TLR2/4. In D16D8 tumor challenge studies, the antitumor effect of Spirulina was abolished in MyD88 -/- mice. Hence, orally administered Spirulina enhances tumoricidal NK activation through the MyD88 pathway. Spirulina exerted a synergistic antitumor activity with BCG-cell wall skeleton, which is known to activate the MyD88 pathway via TLR2/4 with no NK enhancing activity. Spirulina and BCG-cell wall skeleton synergistically augmented IFN-gamma production and antitumor potential in the B16D8 versus C57BL/6 system. We infer from these results that NK activation by Spirulina has some advantage in combinational use with BCG-cell wall skeleton for developing adjuvant-based antitumor immunotherapy.

In the search for novel antiviral molecules from natural products, we have discovered various antiviral molecules with characteristic mechanisms of action. Scopadulciol (SDC), isolated from the tropical medicinal plant Scoparia dulcis L., showed stimulatory effects on the antiviral potency of acyclovir (ACV) or ganciclovir (GCV). This effect of SDC was exerted via the activation of viral thymidine kinase (HSV-1 TK) and, as a result, an increase in the cellular concentration of the active form of ACV/GCV, i.e., the triphosphate of ACV or GCV. On the basis of these experimental results, cancer gene therapy using the HSV-1 tk gene and ACV/GCV together with SDC was found to be effective in suppressing the growth of cancer cells in animals. Acidic polysaccharides such as calcium spirulan (Ca-SP) from Spirulina platensis, nostoflan from Nostoc flagelliforme, and a fucoidan from the sporophyll of Undaria pinnatifida (mekabu fucoidan) were also found to be potent inhibitors against several enveloped viruses. Their antiviral potency was dependent on molecular weight and content of the sulfate or carboxyl group as well as counterion species chelating with sulfate groups, indicating the importance of the three-dimensional structure of the molecules. In addition, unlike dextran sulfate, Ca-SP was shown to target not only viral absorption/penetration stages but also some replication stages of progeny viruses after penetration into cells. When mekabu fucoidan or nostoflan was administered with oseltamivir phosphate, their synergistic antiviral effects on influenza A virus were confirmed in vitro as well as in vivo.

PURPOSE: Cisplatin (CP)-induced nephrotoxicity is associated with the increased generation of reactive oxygen metabolites and lipid peroxidation in kidney, caused by the decreased levels of antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the role of Spirulina, blue-green alga with antioxidant properties, in the protection of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in rat. METHODS: Rats were treated with CP (6 mg/kg bw, single dose, intraperitoneally). Spirulina (1,000 mg/kg) was administered orally for 8 days and CP treatment was given on day 4. Nephrotoxicity was assessed, 6 days after the CP treatment, by measuring plasma urea, creatinine, urinary N-acetyl-(D-glucose-aminidase) (beta-NAG) and histopathology of kidney. RESULTS: Rats treated with CP showed marked nephrotoxicity as evidenced from the significant elevation in plasma urea, creatinine and urinary beta-NAG. Histological assessment revealed marked proximal tubular necrosis and extensive epithelial vacuolization in the kidney of CP-treated rats. Superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase were decreased and lipid peroxidation was increased in kidney tissue. Pretreatment with Spirulina protected the rats from CP-induced nephrotoxicity. The rise in plasma urea, creatinine, urinary beta-NAG, plasma and kidney tissue MDA and histomorphological changes were significantly attenuated by Spirulina. In vitro studies using human ovarian cancer cells revealed that Spirulina did not interfere with the cytotoxic effects of CP on tumor cells. CONCLUSIONS: In summary, Spirulina significantly protected the CP-induced nephrotoxicity through its antioxidant properties.